Table 1 The toxic effect of HMs on filamentous pathogens
From: Fungal and oomycete pathogens and heavy metals: an inglorious couple in the environment
Metal | Pathogen group | Concentration | Species | Disease(s) | Effect(s) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ag | Fungi | 15 mg·L−1 | Alternaria alternata | Leaf spot, black spot | - Growth inhibition - Damage and deformation of hyphae and conidia - Disorders in the total content of protein/lipids/sugar/n-acetyl glucosamine | Ouda (2014) |
Botrytis cinerea | Gray mold | |||||
5–250 ppm | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | White mold | - Growth inhibition | Mwangi et al. (2014) | ||
Oomycetes | 5–50 ppm | Phytophthora spp. | Soil- and water-borne plant pathogens | - Zoospore death | Slade and Pegg (1993) | |
Ba | Fungi | 10–4 to 10–5 M | Alternaria solani | Early blight | - Inhibition of spore germination - Inhibition of germ tube growth | Bhajbhuje (2013) |
Cd | Fungi | 10–4 to 10–5 M | Alternaria solani | Early blight | - Inhibition of spore germination - Inhibition of germ tube growth | Bhajbhuje (2013) |
200 mg·L−1 | Aspergillus fumigatus | Aspergillosis | - Hyphae decolorisation | Mohammadian Fazli et al. (2015) | ||
0.175–3.0 mM | Botrytis cinerea | Gray mold | - Growth inhibition - Over-accumulation of hydrolases and oxidases | Cherrad et al. (2012) | ||
100 ppm | Fusarium oxysporum | Fusarium wilt | - Growth inhibition | Golubović-Ćurguz (2010) | ||
0.150 mM | Fusarium oxysporum | Fusarium wilt | - Acquisition orange tones of mycelium | Lorenzo-Gutiérrez et al. (2019) | ||
0.1Â mM | Heliscus lugdunensis (Neonectria lugdunensis) | Black foot | - Growth inhibition (50% decrease) | Jaeckel et al. (2005) | ||
200 mg·L−1 | Paecilomyces sp. | Oculomycosis Pistachio dieback Entomopathogenic species | - Hyphae decolorisation | Mohammadian Fazli et al. (2015) | ||
50 μM | Phanerochaete chrysosporium | White-rot (woody plants) Granulomatous lung disease | - Oxidative stress induction -Time-dependent up-regulation of CAT, POX, LiP, and MnP activities | Zhang et al. (2015) | ||
1–500 μM | Phanerochaete chrysosporium | White-rot (woody plants) Granulomatous lung disease | - Viability reduction - CAT activity up-regulation | Chen et al. (2014) | ||
0.1Â mM | Rhizopus arrhizus | Rhizopus soft rot mucormycosis | - Reduction in hyphae length - Reduction in the number of branches | Gadd et al. (2001) | ||
0.1–0.2 mM | Schizophyllum commune | Sap rot, Schizophyllum rot fungal sinusitis | - Inhibition of radial growth | Lilly et al. (1992) | ||
5–250 ppm | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | White mold | - Growth inhibition | Mwangi et al. (2014) | ||
1, 5 and 10Â mmol/L | Trichosporon cutaneum | White piedra | - SOD activity up-regulation | Lazarova et al. (2014) | ||
0.7Â mM | Verticillium cf. alboatrum | Verticillium wilt | - Growth inhibition (30% decrease) | Jaeckel et al. (2005) | ||
Oomycetes | 0.05–3.0 mM | Achlya bisexualis | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Decrease in mycelial area and radial extension | Lundy et al. (2001) | |
5 and 12.5Â mg/L | Phytophthora infestans | Late blight | - ROS and RNS formation - Increase in protein carbonylation content - Up-regulation of CAT and SOD activities - Nitro-oxidative modifications of proteins and nucleic acids | Gajewska et al. (2020) | ||
10–50 µg/ml | Saprolegnia delica Coker | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Inhibition of sporangia formation - Morphological abnormality (e.g. thicker and stunted vegetative hyphae, shorter and thicker zoosporangia, low numbers of oogonia and antheridia) | Ali (2007) | ||
Cu | Fungi | 25–100 ppm | Alternaria alternata | Leaf spot, black spot | - Increase in total protein content - CAT activity up-regulation | Shoaib et al. (2015) |
15 mg·L−1 | Alternaria alternata | Leaf spot, black spot | - Growth inhibition - Damage and deformation of hyphae and conidia - Disorders in the total content of protein, lipids, sugar and n-acetyl glucosamine | Ouda (2014) | ||
10–4 to 10–5 M | Alternaria solani | Early blight | - Inhibition of spore germination - Inhibition of germ tube growth | Bhajbhuje (2013) | ||
0.5Â mM | Aspergillus niger | Black mold | - Growth inhibition - Nitrate-dependent induction of oxalic acid production | Sazanova et al. (2015) | ||
20 and 40Â ppm | Aspergilus niger | Black mold Pneumonia | - Growth inhibition - Decrease in the colony numbers | Abu-Mejdad (2013) | ||
15 mg·L−1 | Botrytis cinerea | Gray mold | - Growth inhibition - Damage and deformation of hyphae and conidia - Disorders in the total content of protein, lipids, sugar and n-acetyl glucosamine | Ouda (2014) | ||
0.5Â mM | Penicillium citrinum | Yellow rice disease (citrinin production) a tissue-invasive cause of pneumonia | - Growth inhibition - Nitrate-dependent induction of oxalic acid production | Sazanova et al. (2015) | ||
0.1Â mM | Rhizopus arrhizus | Rhizopus soft rot mucormycosis | - Reduction of hyphae length - Reduction in the number of branches | Gadd et al. (2001) | ||
1, 5, 3Â mmol/L | Trichosporon cutaneum | White piedra | - Oxidative stress induction - SOD activity up-regulation | Lazarova et al. (2014) | ||
Oomycetes | 0.05–3.0 mM | Achlya bisexualis | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Decrease in mycelial area and radial extension | Lundy et al. (2001) | |
0.5–1 mM | Phytophthora capsici | Blight and fruit rot of peppers | - Growth inhibition - Limited sporulation | Liu et al. (2018) | ||
Co | Oomycetes | 0.05–3.0 mM | Achlya bisexualis | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Decrease in mycelial area and radial extension | Lundy et al. (2001) |
Cr | Fungi | 10–4 to 10–5 M | Alternaria solani | Early blight | - Inhibition of spore germination - Inhibition of germ tube growth | Bhajbhuje (2013) |
1, 5 and 10Â mmol/L | Trichosporon cutaneum | White piedra | - Oxidative stress induction - SOD activity up-regulation | Lazarova et al. (2014) | ||
Oomycetes | 0.5–1 mM | Phytophthora capsici | Blight and fruit rot of peppers | - Growth inhibition - Limited sporulation | Liu et al. (2018) | |
Fe | Fungi | 10–4 to 10–5 M | Alternaria solani | Early blight | - Inhibition of spore germination - Inhibition of germ tube growth | Bhajbhuje (2013) |
Hg | Fungi | 10–4 to 10–5 M | Alternaria solani | Early blight | - Inhibition of spore germination - Inhibition of germ tube growth | Bhajbhuje (2013) |
5–250 ppm | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | White mold | - Growth inhibition | Mwangi et al. (2014) | ||
Oomycetes | 3Â mM | Achlya bisexualis | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Decrease in mycelial area and radial extension - Spiral growth of hyphae | Lundy et al. (2001) | |
0.5–1 mM | Phytophthora capsici | Blight and fruit rot of peppers | - Growth inhibition - Limited sporulation | Liu et al. (2018) | ||
1Â ppm | Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica | Black shank | - Reduction in zoospore germination | Slade and Pegg (1993) | ||
Li | Oomycetes | 1Â ppm | Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica | Black shank | - Reduction in zoospore germination | Slade and Pegg (1993) |
Mn | Oomycetes | 0.1–200 mg/L | Phytophthora nicotianae | Black shank | - Growth inhibition - Sporangiogenesis and zoosporogenesis inhibition - Spores germination inhibition - Concentration-dependent regulation of SOD and CAT activity - Increased MDA content with increasing HM concentration | Luo et al. (2020) |
Pb | Fungi | 25 μM | Phanerochaete chrysosporium | White-rot (woody plants) Granulomatous lung disease | - ROS formation - Time-dependent up-regulation of CAT, POD, LiP and MnP activities | Zhang et al. (2015) |
Oomycetes | 1Â ppm | Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica | Black shank | - Reduction in zoospore germination | Slade and Pegg (1993) | |
10–50 µg/ml | Saprolegnia delica Coker | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Inhibition of sporangia formation - Morphological abnormality (e.g. thicker and stunted vegetative hyphae, shorter and thicker zoosporangia, low numbers of oogonia and antheridia) | Ali (2007) | ||
Sr | Oomycetes | 30Â mM | Phytophthora cinnamomi | Root rot and cankering | - Encystment 90% of zoospores | Byrt et al. (1982) |
Zn | Fungi | 20 and 40Â ppm | Aspergilus niger | Black mold | - Growth inhibition - Decrease in the colony numbers | Abu-Mejdad (2013) |
2Â mM | Aspergillus niger | Black mold | - Growth inhibition - Nitrate-dependent induction of oxalic acid production | Sazanova et al. (2015) | ||
1–10 mM | Penicillium spp. | Allergic pulmonary disease | - Secretion a yellow substance related to the HM stress | Ezzouhri et al. (2009) | ||
2Â mM | Penicillium citrinum | Yellow rice disease (citrinin production) a tissue-invasive cause of Pneumonia | - Growth inhibition - Nitrate-dependent induction of oxalic acid production | Sazanova et al. (2015) | ||
0.1Â mM | Rhizopus arrhizus | Mucormycosis | - Reduction of hyphae length - Reduction in the number of branches | Gadd et al. (2001) | ||
5–250 ppm | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | White mold | - Growth inhibition | Mwangi et al. (2014) | ||
Oomycetes | 0.05–3.0 mM | Achlya bisexualis | Saprolegniasis in fishes | - Decrease in mycelial area and radial extension | Lundy et al. (2001) | |
0.1–20 mg/L | Phytophthora nicotianae | Black shank | - Growth inhibition - Sporangiogenesis and zoosporogenesis inhibition - Spores germination inhibition - Concentration-dependent regulation of SOD and CAT activity - Increased MDA content with Increasing HM concentration | Luo et al. (2020) |