Table 3 Examples of the ecological, economic and social impacts of disease syndromes or processes involving multiple Phytophthora species

Cocoa black pod disease: West Africa, Caribbean, South America, Southeast Asia

Plantation

5

2, 4, 5

Cocoa pod lesions. Heavy crop losses (cf. P. megakarya, Table 2). Impact on small scale local farming communities and on global chocolate industry

Oak decline: across Europe

Forest, park

26

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12

Root lesions and sometimes also collar lesion leading to forest declines driven in part by introduced pathogens and interaction with climate change. Impact on forestry and recreation

Beech decline: across Europe

Forest, park

16

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12

Root lesions, collar lesions, stem lesions leading to forest declines driven in part by introduced pathogens and interaction with climate change. Impact on forestry and recreation

Dieback of Mediterranean maquis vegetation: La Maddelena archipelago, Italy

Natural vegetation

9

6, 7, 8

Root lesions, collar lesions, stem lesions leading to mortality and decline of natural vegetation in a National Park. Impact on tourism, biodiversity and natural heritage

Restoration plantings in native Mediterranean heath vegetation and woodlands: Bay area, California

Planting, specialist nursery

51

1, 2, 4, 6,7,8

Strong evidence for spread to native plant habitats of at least five Phytophthora species causing root lesions, collar lesions, dieback and mortality of the vegetation. Impact on biodiversity and natural heritage

Dieback of eucalypt forests, Banksia woodlands and heath vegetation: across Western Australia

Forest, natural vegetation

26

Root and collar rot resulting in devastating dieback of whole ecosystems. Many of the Phytophthora species involved are considered native; however, the most aggressive species with the widest host ranges are introduced invasives (P. cinnamomi, P. elongata and P. multivora). Impacts on biodiversity, conservation, forestry and natural heritage

Woody plant nurseries and outplantings: across Europe

Nursery, outplantings

65

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12

Most of these Phytophthora taxa are not native to Europe but are now established in the wider environment causing diseases of trees and shrubs in forests and natural ecosystems (e.g. P. austrocedri, P. cactorum, P. cinnamomi, P. kernoviae, P. multivora, P. plurivora, P. ramorum, P. ×alni, P. ×cambivora). Direct impact on nurseries; indirect impact on forestry, private garden owners, recreation and natural heritage